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TAC Public Meeting September 2026 Paper 4b: Nature research – overall findings draft report
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- Executive summary
- Introduction
- Approach
- Findings by research question
- Research question 3: How might nature-related risks and opportunities affect a company's prospects?
- Research question 4: What are primary users' expectations?
- Research question 5: Might there be any specific issues in the UK with introducing nature-related disclosure requirements?
- Conclusions
- Abbreviations
- Appendix 1: Literature review summary
- Appendix 2: FTSE 100 review entities
- Appendix 3: Stakeholder engagement
- 2. Key conclusions and recommendations
Executive summary
Purpose of this research
1In anticipation of the International Sustainability Standards Board's (ISSB) forthcoming consultation on a proposed Practice Statement for nature-related disclosures (expected in October 2026), the UK Sustainability Disclosure Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) commissioned this research to provide an evidence base for its response. As the independent body responsible for advising the UK Government on the technical endorsement of IFRS Sustainability Disclosure Standards, the TAC also provides a focal point for UK stakeholders in the development of these standards.
2This research assessed the current state of nature-related disclosures in the UK, including reporting practices, primary user expectations, organisational readiness, and the potential challenges associated with nature-related reporting. It also considered how nature-related risks and opportunities may affect entities' prospects and identified UK-specific considerations relevant to the introduction of future disclosure requirements.
3The research combined evidence from three workstreams:
- a targeted review of existing literature on nature-related disclosures;
- a content analysis of the annual reports and accounts of FTSE 100 entities; and
- stakeholder engagement with preparers, primary users, academics, data providers and other experts.
4The findings provide a snapshot of current UK reporting practice and stakeholder views. They also identify areas in which current evidence remains limited or inconclusive.
Key findings
5UK entities already report information about nature-related matters, but practice remains nascent. Entities are already disclosing nature-related information, particularly on established topics such as water and waste. However, disclosures frequently lack entity-specific information about risks and opportunities, financial effects, business resilience, metrics and targets. The increase in disclosure volume should therefore not be interpreted as an equivalent increase in decision-useful reporting.
6Nature-related reporting is unstructured and lacks consistency. Several frameworks and standards are used to disclose nature-related information. These frameworks are applied inconsistently and often without an explanation of the basis of preparation. Nature-related information is also presented in multiple locations which leads to duplication. Together, these issues make it harder for primary users to identify and compare information, even within the same industries.
7Nature-related information is often viewed through a climate lens, and the relationship between climate and nature is largely one-directional. The most common type of nature-related risks being identified by reporting entities is physical climate-related risks, such as extreme weather events. Nature-related information is also integrated into entities' climate-related disclosures.
8Primary user interest in nature-related information is growing, but its influence on decision-making remains limited. Primary users increasingly recognise the potential financial significance of nature-related risks and opportunities, although climate change remains a higher priority for many. They principally seek concise information about exposure, governance, risk management and actions taken. However, there is limited evidence that nature-related information currently changes investment or lending decisions.
9Nature presents distinctive reporting challenges as it is multidimensional, interconnected and specific to location/place, and dependencies and impacts often arise across complex value chains. These characteristics make nature-related risks and opportunities difficult to identify, aggregate and assess at entity level. The absence of globally established cross-sector metrics and the large number of frameworks, tools and datasets add further complexity and reduce comparability.
10The financial materiality of nature-related information is often unclear which may reduce the decision-usefulness of disclosures for primary users. Reporting focuses more frequently on impacts than dependencies, which remain less well understood and reflected in disclosures. Entities rarely explain the causal pathways through which impacts and dependencies translate into nature-related risks and opportunities and, ultimately, financial effects.
11Financial effects of nature-related risks and opportunities are difficult to assess and quantify. Entities may face significant challenges in explaining how risks and opportunities translate into financial effects. Quantification may be useful in some circumstances, but qualitative information about the direction, scale and significance of effects may be more reliable. Where there is quantification of financial effects of nature-related risks and opportunities, it is generally only where nature is relevant to climate-related disclosures.
12Data and capability gaps are significant and nature-related data is often incomplete, inconsistent, or inaccessible. Entities may lack the systems, controls and specialist expertise needed to collect and assess it. Capability gaps among both preparers and primary users affect the quality of disclosures and users' ability to incorporate the information into decisions, particularly in relation to biodiversity and nature-related dependencies, which are generally less well understood than issues such as water, waste, and deforestation.
Introduction
13Since January 2026, the International Sustainability Standards Board (ISSB) has been deliberating on a proposed set of reporting requirements and guidance for nature-related disclosures. An Exposure Draft of a Practice Statement is anticipated to be published for consultation in October 2026.
14This research project was designed to capture evidence for the UK Sustainability Disclosure Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) in preparation for this upcoming consultation on nature-related disclosures.
15The TAC is an independent expert advisory body, established by the UK Government, whose purpose is to assess IFRS Sustainability Disclosure Standards on a technical basis and provide independent recommendations on endorsement to the Secretary of State for Business, Innovation, Science and Trade. The TAC also has a responsibility to undertake outreach with, and provide a focal point for, UK stakeholders to influence the technical development of IFRS Sustainability Disclosure Standards. This includes the way the ISSB develops its future standards and the ISSB's choices to amend or produce guidance on existing standards.
16To support the TAC's response to the ISSB's consultation on nature-related disclosures, this research project seeks to understand current practices and stakeholder views on nature-related disclosures within the UK. The findings are intended to provide an evidence base for the TAC's response by identifying emerging practices, challenges, opportunities, and areas of stakeholder consensus or divergence.
Objectives
17The objectives of this research project were to:
- understand the general appetite of UK primary users (including investors and creditors) to consider nature-related disclosures;
- understand any anticipated potential costs and benefits from nature-related reporting in the UK;
- understand the general readiness of UK reporters to report nature-related disclosures;
- provide a snapshot of the current approach to nature-related disclosures in the UK market;
- understand the reasons behind the current disclosure approach; and
- anticipate any areas of challenge regarding nature-related reporting in the UK.
18Based on these objectives, the research questions were:
- What is the current reporting practice in the UK?
- What are the challenges in reporting nature-related information?
- How might nature-related risks and opportunities affect a company's prospects?
- What are primary users' expectations?
- Might there be any specific issues in the UK with introducing nature-related disclosure requirements?
Approach
19To address these research questions, the project was structured around three workstreams, combining desk-based research with stakeholder engagement.
Workstream 1: Review of existing literature on nature-related disclosures
20A targeted literature review was undertaken using sources identified through internet searches and documents obtained from professional contacts. Relevant literature was selected based on its contribution to the five research questions, and included:
- academic papers and articles;
- current UK regulations and international frameworks;
- reports and research produced by standard-setters and regulators in other jurisdictions;
- news articles; and
- reports and research produced by third parties such as consultancies, accounting firms, and Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs).
21The findings from the literature review have been integrated throughout the analysis presented in this report and have informed the assessment of each research question. A summary matrix of the literature sources reviewed is provided in Appendix 1.
Workstream 2: Content analysis of FTSE 100 reports
22Alongside the literature review, an analysis of current UK practice in nature-related reporting was undertaken. The annual reports and accounts of entities comprising the FTSE 100 as at 11 February 2026 were reviewed to assess the extent and nature of their nature-related disclosures and to develop an understanding of emerging reporting practices in the UK market.
23The findings from the FTSE 100 content analysis have been incorporated into this report and have informed the assessment of each research question. In addition, a supplementary report provides a more detailed analysis of the results and the reporting trends identified.
24A list of the entities included in the analysis is presented in Appendix 2.
Workstream 3: Stakeholder engagement
25To gain further insight into UK stakeholder perspectives, a series of expert roundtables on nature-related disclosures was convened. Participants were experts in nature-related disclosures and represented a range of stakeholder groups, including preparers, primary users, academics, data providers, and other individuals with expertise in nature-related reporting.
26The insights gathered through these roundtables have been incorporated into the analysis presented throughout this report. In addition, Appendix 3 provides a summary of the key themes and issues discussed during the roundtable sessions.
Use of AI
27Microsoft Copilot (Al) was used in multiple ways to support the three workstreams, including:
- evidence extraction as part of the literature review;
- design and population of the literature summary matrix in Appendix 1;
- note-taking for the stakeholder roundtables; and
- synthesising the data from the FTSE 100 review to assist in identifying key themes and to calculate statistics.
28All Al-generated evidence-extraction outputs were checked and validated before being included in the analysis.
29Al was also used to support drafting this paper, including restructuring, language refinement, and error checking.
Findings by research question
Research question 1: What is the current reporting practice in the UK?
Overall practice
30Reporting on nature-related matters is increasing year on year, but it is still an emerging practice within the UK. All but one of the FTSE 100 disclosed nature-related information to some extent, although there is a broad spectrum of quality and quantity of reporting. Increasing quantity of nature-related disclosure does not necessarily equate to high-quality reporting of material information. Additionally, the quantity and quality of disclosure might not be representative of the work entities are doing behind the scenes.
31Nature-related reporting remains less mature than climate reporting, and the nature reporting that does exist is most often through a climate lens. The most common type of nature-related risks reported is linked to physical climate-related risks, such as extreme weather events.
32Much of the nature-related reporting observed in the literature focuses on the reputational benefits of nature-related reporting (e.g. focusing on good news stories), and/or information that is legally required. There is limited disclosure about nature-related risks and opportunities to the entity, or information about wider nature-related goals. Linking these risks, opportunities or goals to financial information is even rarer.
Information about governance and risk management
33The majority of FTSE 100 reports included some level of information on the governance processes used to manage and oversee nature-related risks and opportunities, but much of this information consisted of broad statements that asserted the responsibilities of the Board or Committees or generic statements about governance of sustainability. There was little evidence of accountability and controls, although there are a few examples of more mature disclosure. This finding was also reflected in the literature where it was generally observed that governance oversight specifically assigned to nature-related matters was uncommon.
34Additionally, nature-related considerations were often integrated into enterprise risk management systems, though these generally related to physical climate risks such as extreme weather events causing supply chain disruptions. While 96 of the FTSE 100 reported on nature-related risks to some extent within their annual report, 77 included nature-related considerations in their principal risks section.
Identifying risks and opportunities
35The FTSE 100 review identified nature-related risks being disclosed in the large majority of the annual reports. The most commonly reported nature-related risks related to physical climate-related risks, primarily extreme weather risks such as wildfires, drought and flooding. Most entities only reported on nature-related risks through a climate lens within their annual report and often only as part of their Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) reporting.
36The literature found different practices emerging on how entities disclose information about nature-related risks and opportunities. Generally, risks relating to nature-related regulation were dominant, with some examples of practices that focused on exposure and location-sensitive areas.
37Fewer entities in the FTSE 100 reported upon their nature-related opportunities. In many cases, the opportunity was not explicitly labelled as such by the entities themselves but was interpreted as an opportunity by the reviewers. The most common type of opportunity (self-identified or not) was product or service innovations to meet consumer demand, either due to market shifts towards 'green' options or due to the nature-related risks being faced by their own consumers.
38The nature-related risks and opportunities most commonly disclosed addressed water use, water pollution, air pollution, and waste, with less disclosure on biodiversity or ecosystem services.
Information about the financial effects
39The FTSE 100 review found that reporting often focuses on impacts on nature but does not always make a clear causal link to nature-related risks and opportunities. Where such links were made, clear illustrations of the financial effects of these risks and opportunities on the entity were rare, although some entities did provide information on their financial effects.
40This finding was echoed in the literature review which identified limited disclosures of the financial effects of nature-related risks and opportunities, with very little, if any, quantification of these risks and opportunities. Additionally, there was limited assessment of the business resilience to nature-related risks and opportunities.
Information about strategy and policy
41The literature found that disclosures about strategies and policies are the strongest. However, the FTSE 100 review revealed that nature-related strategies primarily focus on operational activities and metrics which manage the entity's impacts on nature. Information about strategy and policy rarely addressed the management of nature-related risks and opportunities as would be required by IFRS S1 General Requirements for Disclosure of Sustainability-related Financial Information (IFRS S1).
42The use of scenario analysis for nature-related risks and opportunities in the FTSE 100 reports is extremely rare, and often only noted when nature is a relevant consideration within climate scenarios.
Information about metrics and targets
43The FTSE 100 review identified nature-related target setting and performance metrics in most of the FTSE 100 annual reports and accounts, though these were generally focused on operational impacts (in line with our findings about strategy disclosures), with direct linkage of targets to nature-related risks and opportunities being less common. The most common topic for nature-related targets was water.
44The literature identified that reporting on performance related to nature-related matters is uncommon. The EY 2025 Global Nature Action Barometer report found that the disclosures they reviewed scored lowest on the metrics and targets pillar. Similarly to the risks and opportunities disclosures, reported metrics generally focused on water, with additional metrics on forests and high-biodiversity locations. Reported quantitative metrics varied in units and granularity and were difficult to compare, including within the same industry.
45The literature also identified limited disclosure of nature-related targets which often lacked specificity, quantification, or links to global goals. This was supported by the FTSE 100 review which also noted a lack of baseline data provided for most of the targets reported.
Reporting frameworks and standards
46The literature did not have a consensus on the reporting frameworks and standards used to report nature-related information, with some suggesting that there is no dominant framework, whereas others suggest that the Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD) is the most dominant framework. There is growing commitment to use the TNFD, but limited examples of disclosures that provide detailed TNFD-aligned information. GRI Standards are also referenced as a commonly used standard for nature-related reporting.
47The FTSE 100 review looked specifically at references made to TNFD, the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) and the SASB Standards. One third of the FTSE 100 references the TNFD by name. Of that third, some mention TNFD in passing as a framework which they are aware of or monitoring. Most of the entities referencing the TNFD provide evidence of applying the requirements at varying levels of alignment. A small number of entities used the four pillars of TNFD (governance, strategy, risk management, and metrics and targets) explicitly to structure their nature-related disclosures. This was most common for entities where nature is evidently critical to their operations such as those in Water Utilities & Services and Food & Beverage industries.
48Over half of the FTSE 100 reports referenced CSRD or the European Sustainability Reporting Standards (ESRS). Notably, several entities who are not within scope of the Directive are still undertaking double materiality assessments on nature-related topics, as a useful preparatory tool for nature-related reporting.
49Over a third of FTSE 100 reports reference the SASB Standards, but not necessarily as part of their nature-related disclosures. Only 7 evidenced that they had used the SASB Standards to understand nature-related topics. Most reports which mention SASB Standards demonstrate, or at least state, the intention to meaningfully apply or align with the Standards. However, this was not seen to necessarily translate into the creation and reporting of financially material, decision-useful information. Use of the SASB Standards to aid in nature-related reporting appeared ad hoc, with entities that reference them generally presenting selected metrics without clear explanation of the judgement used to decide upon which ones they selected.
Location of reporting
50Findings from both the FTSE 100 review and literature review demonstrated that entities are taking different approaches to reporting nature-related information, including disclosing information in different reports. The fragmentation of information across many different documents impairs navigation and interpretation and has led to a high level of duplication. Even within the annual reports, the location and presentation of nature-related information lacks consistency, making it difficult to identify or compare information, even within the same industries.
51The review of FTSE 100 reports only considered information within the annual report and accounts, as IFRS S1 paragraph 60 requires entities to disclose their sustainability-related information as part of their general purpose financial reports. However, many FTSE 100 entities also included nature-related information in separate reports, for example:
- TNFD/nature reports
- TCFD/Climate reports
- Transition plans
- Topic statements
- Websites
52According to the TNFD status report (2025), most entities that disclose nature-related information do so as part of their climate-related reporting, either in a standalone report or integrated within the mainstream financial report.
Research question 2: What are the challenges in reporting nature-related information?
Complexity of 'nature'
53'Nature' is multidimensional and dynamic. Unlike climate change, 'nature' lacks widely accepted cross-sector metrics (i.e. GHG emissions) that underpin how it is understood.
54Additionally, nature-related risks are not only location-specific but are deeply interconnected in a wider system that crosses jurisdictional boundaries. A singular risk could trigger cascading effects across supply chains, ecosystems and markets, which can potentially amplify the scale and severity of nature-related risks to an entity. These cascading effects can materialise across longer time horizons making them more difficult to comprehend.
55However, these systemic risks are difficult to identify and assess at a corporate entity level and are therefore likely to have unforeseen and significant financial implications for businesses and financial institutions. Focusing on the short term and location-specific dependencies and impacts might mean that systemic risk is overlooked, which in turn could mean that longer term economic loss due to ecosystem failure is more difficult to identify.
56Existing frameworks often lack comprehensive methods that take the complexity of nature into account, and data points can often be too reductive and simplistic.
Climate and nature nexus
57Stakeholders broadly agreed, and several literature sources similarly indicated, that climate change and nature are deeply interconnected. However, the way in which this connection is conceptualised and reflected in reporting is somewhat different.
58Evidence from the FTSE 100 review suggests that, in practice, many entities approach the relationship from a climate-first perspective, incorporating nature-related considerations within existing climate disclosures. This may reflect the greater maturity of climate-related reporting practices and the availability of more established climate-related data, methodologies, and governance processes.
59Stakeholders also highlighted the potential benefits of integrating climate and nature risk assessment to provide a more holistic view of risks and opportunities. An integrated approach could help entities better understand the interconnected and systemic nature of environmental issues, including the ways in which climate-related and nature-related risks can reinforce one another. However, stakeholders also noted that many nature-related issues have unique characteristics and dependencies that may require separate analysis and specialised methodologies.
60Stakeholders noted that climate-related and nature-related datasets remain separate, but increasingly data providers offer them bundled together. This demonstrates the trend towards integrating climate-related and nature-related information together rather than dealing with them as separate issues.
Impacts and dependencies
61The FTSE 100 review observed a low level of conceptual distinction between impacts and dependencies, and risks and opportunities. The terms 'impacts' and 'dependencies' were not often used in the reporting, and the relationship between these terms often appeared blurred. Where the terms were used, they were sometimes used interchangeably. The literature suggested that trying to separate impacts and dependencies could miss key connections, and entities could increase their exposure to nature-related risks by degrading the ecosystems on which they depend.
62According to S&P Global (2025), 57% of entities in the S&P Global 1200 have significant nature dependency risks across their direct operations, with even greater exposure in the value chain. The FTSE 100 review findings aligned with this figure, as nature-related dependencies were observed in about half of the FTSE 100 reports, largely correlating with entities and sectors whose operations and/or supply chains directly rely upon agricultural products or other environmental resources.
63The FTSE 100 review observed that reporting on nature-related matters primarily focused on impacts of business activities. This is supported by the literature, which suggests that understanding and management of dependency-related risks is inadequate. Several sources concluded that the business dependencies on nature is incomplete and poorly understood, with industries that have direct relationships with raw materials having clearer financial incentives to understand nature-related dependencies. The FTSE 100 review found that dependencies on environmental resources were much better understood and reported than dependencies on ecosystem services, which suggests that it is easier for entities to identify tangible inputs compared to understanding the processes provided by ecosystem services.
Multitude of frameworks and reporting standards
64As noted in research question 1, the FTSE 100 entities use different frameworks and reporting standards to prepare their nature-related disclosure, including TNFD, SASB and CSRD.
65Much of the literature broadly agreed that the fragmentation of frameworks and reporting standards is detrimental to good quality reporting. The use of different frameworks, including CSRD, SASB, GRI and TNFD, has contributed to complexity and inconsistency of disclosures, meaning that it is difficult to understand and compare exposure to nature-related risks and opportunities. Evidence also suggests that reporting entities ‘cherry pick' disclosure items and do not apply disclosure requirements consistently. The FTSE 100 review found that multiple frameworks are sometimes applied by entities in part and in tandem.
66This challenge is compounded by the growing number of tools available to identify, map, measure and assess nature-related dependencies, impacts, risks and opportunities. For example, the TNFD tools database contains 251 tools as of 02/09/2026. Research provided by the Pentland Centre at Lancaster University discusses challenges of 'tool stacking' whereby different tools are purposefully used together to address the different dimensions of nature-related assessment that no single tool can cover alone.
Understanding significance of risks and assessing materiality
67Current approaches to assessing materiality are inconsistent, and entities often have varying understandings as to whether nature-related risks and opportunities are significant to their business. As a result, the absence of a disclosure can be difficult to interpret, as it may indicate either that the matter was assessed as immaterial or that the entity was unable to demonstrate its materiality. Greater transparency regarding the processes and judgements used to determine materiality would help primary users understand why certain nature-related risks and opportunities have been disclosed, or omitted, and would improve comparability across entities.
68There are notable challenges with understanding how effects on an entity's prospects reach materiality thresholds. In the FTSE 100 review, many entities completed full TCFD assessments on physical climate-related risks, only to determine that the financial effects of these risks were not material to the entity. Stakeholders expected that this is due to unclear guidance on how risks and opportunities affect prospects across different time horizons which could lead to underestimation or overestimation of risks and opportunities.
69It was also observed in the FTSE 100 review that entities using ESRS double materiality assessments mostly determined that nature-related topics (other than climate change) were only relevant under the impact materiality category. This could suggest that future reporting requirements focused only on the financial effects of nature-related risks and opportunities might result in limited disclosures. Alternatively, it could suggest that entities do not have sufficient understanding of how dependencies and impacts translate into financial effects to their prospects. This observation was also found in the TNFD (2025) evidence review on financial effects of nature-related risks where they found that entities applying ESRS often do not deem nature as financially material, even when it might be expected.
Scenario analysis
70Scenario analysis can be a helpful internal tool, but in regard to nature its uptake is limited by methodological uncertainty and the absence of a globally acceptable approach.
71Stakeholders recognise that when scenario analysis is being used for nature-related risks and opportunities, it is often qualitative and less science-based. Stakeholders also confirmed that often entities will use their climate scenario analysis and apply it to nature.
72There are notable challenges with nature-related scenario analysis that make it different to climate change:
- Climate scenarios are framed around a universally understood emissions trajectory, whereas nature is more complex and multifaceted.
- Common scenarios that apply to all organisations might be helpful, but not possible given location specificity of the risks and opportunities and scientific complexity.
- Nature scenarios would possibly be more helpful when specific to a theme (e.g. water, waste, deforestation).
- Forward-looking data sets for different time horizons are not available at the granularity needed on many of the topics (e.g. species and habitat pressures).
- Nature-related scenarios are highly geopolitically sensitive and entities are unlikely to make statements about possible policy positions of government (e.g. nature loss in the Amazon region).
73A phased approach to scenario analysis might be appropriate, especially starting with sensitivity analysis for specific risks in a specific region using narrative scenarios.
Industry specificity
74There is consensus from stakeholders and within the literature that financial exposure to nature-related risks and opportunities varies significantly by industry, geography, and business model, with more nature-dependent industries likely to face greater risks. Different sources highlighted different industries that are likely to have the most exposure. These industries include mining, oil and gas, forestry and paper, consumer goods, agriculture, food and beverage, energy, utilities and real estate. The financial sector will likely find nature-related assessment difficult across varied industries and locations without standardised measurements.
75Although stakeholders supported industry-based nature-related metrics, they also recognised the importance of location-based analysis and cross-industry metrics. Standardised industry metrics might not always reflect the top priorities in every location, and therefore entities will have to consider multiple factors when determining which information to disclose.
76Stakeholders also recognised the importance of cross-sector information to support portfolio screening and a broader understanding of nature-related risks and opportunities. The majority of stakeholders would prefer the TNFD approach to metrics, with the core global metrics applicable to all entities with supplementary industry-specific metrics.
77IFRS S1 requires entities to refer to and consider the industry-based SASB Standards when identifying sustainability-related risks and opportunities and determining relevant disclosures. Although the SASB Standards include extensive coverage of nature-related matters (107 individual disclosure topics and 331 individual metrics), they do not provide a comprehensive list of all nature-related risks and opportunities an entity might be exposed to. The SASB Standards also illustrate the limitations of industry-based requirements, as nature-related risks are often highly location-specific and can evolve over time, making them difficult to capture fully through standardised industry-level disclosures.
Scale and location specificity
78It is broadly agreed upon that nature-related matters are location/place-based. However, available guidance lacks clarity about the expected level of location specificity, especially where entities do not operate in a fixed location. Despite the location-specificity of nature-related risks and opportunities, nature itself exists beyond national boundaries which can make it difficult to understand the interdependent variables that lead to risks and opportunities.
79The FTSE 100 review observed that references to specific locations were more common than references to a broader scale. It was common for entities to present case studies on nature that focus on a specific site or assets that could be helpful in grounding the entity's relationships with nature into tangible examples. However, these location-specific examples often do not address risks and opportunities that are likely to affect an entity's prospects.
80Additionally, there are concerns about over-aggregation of risks at corporate entity level. One Financials entity stated in their report that top-down entity-level data does not include important local context about assets or supply-chain exposures, which could lead to understating the importance of these disclosures. However, in the asset-level disclosures observed in the FTSE 100 review, the case study style presentation did not often include the identification of significant DIROS.
81In some instances, nature was referred to as both ‘place-based' and 'location-specific', which have interconnected but different meanings, though they are sometimes used interchangeably. Nature as a concept can exist at different scales but is place-based, while an entity's dependencies, impacts, risks and opportunities on nature will likely be location-specific within the entity's operations or value chain.
Value chain
82In the UK, a significant proportion of nature-related risks and opportunities arise in the value chain rather than in direct operations. Therefore, UK entities' understanding of the value chain is critical to identifying and assessing nature-related risks and opportunities.
83Stakeholders identified several challenges associated with assessing nature-related risks and opportunities across the value chain, including:
- limited traceability of products and materials throughout the supply chain.
- complex product portfolios with some products having multiple possible end uses.
- the aggregation and creation of composite products can make it difficult to identify exactly where the product comes from or how it is finally used.
- challenges in appropriately scaling disclosures for broad and complex value chains, particularly where risks and opportunities are highly localised and may not be visible at the corporate level.
- disregarding nature-related risks and opportunities when there is a large and diverse supply chain.
84Stakeholders also noted that existing procurement and supplier due diligence processes may already capture information relevant to identifying value chain risks and opportunities. However, this information is not always utilised for these purposes. There may be opportunities to leverage existing processes and data sources more effectively.
85Much of the literature focuses on the risk exposure and reporting practices of large entities whose nature-related risks and opportunities will be concentrated in the value chain. This means that the literature often does not take into account smaller entities who are likely to be more directly exposed to nature-related risks and opportunities, but also who are unlikely to be within scope of the ISSB Standards.
86In the reporting review, sometimes extremely extensive value-chain reporting from entities with agricultural supply chains was observed. There should be consideration as to what level of information is material when reporting on highly nature-dependent supply chains.
Data challenges
87As with many other sustainability-related matters, data availability and quality remain a significant challenge and barrier in preparing nature-related disclosures. Some of the most commonly reported challenges relate to the reliance on supply-chain data that might be incomplete, inconsistent, costly or difficult to obtain.
88These challenges are intensified by the local and regional specificity of nature-related issues. Unlike some climate-related metrics, nature-related dependencies, impacts, risks and opportunities often vary significantly by geography, ecosystem, sector and value-chain location. This means that generic or high-level data may be insufficient for accurate assessment.
89For some industries, asset-level data is reasonably available, but remains limited across an entire portfolio. Stakeholders note that country-level data could be helpful, especially as it provides contextual information about location. However, even country-level data is often insufficient in its specificity. For example, sourcing natural resources from different regions within the same country could lead to very different risk assessments. Technological advances in geospatial data are proving helpful, but there will still be a need for ‘ground truthing' to understand exactly what is happening at the location.
90Data limitations also affect modelling and risk estimation. Limited data availability, restricted accessibility and a lack of empirical evidence make it difficult to develop, calibrate and validate nature-related risk models. As the Green Finance Institute (GFI) notes, “there are large gaps in the availability and accessibility of the data required to develop, calibrate and validate models and also a paucity of empirical evidence. This means that those models that exist, will be prone to underestimate the risks” (GFI 2024).
91Stakeholders noted that available data is largely focused on operational activities, not the full value chain, which means that primary users must use assumptions and proxies to gain a full understanding of the exposure to risks and opportunities. The use of new technology, including AI, could improve supply-chain traceability and links between purchased products and the origin of components and ingredients which will make value chain data easier to obtain.
Skills and capabilities
92When discussing the form of standard setting, stakeholders generally expressed a preference for a flexible approach rather than a formalised or prescriptive standard at this stage. This reflects a recognition that nature-related reporting is nascent, and both market practice and organisational capabilities need to develop further to enable the preparation of decision-useful information.
93The literature highlights significant gaps in the skills, knowledge, and capabilities required to improve nature-related disclosures. Both reporting entities and primary users are still developing their understanding of how businesses depend on, impact, and are exposed to nature-related risks and opportunities. In particular, quantitative reporting on many nature-related topics remains relatively unfamiliar to market participants, especially on topics other than water. Assessing and reporting on issues such as biodiversity and ecosystem services often requires specialist expertise that is not readily transferable from other areas of environmental reporting.
94Organisations may also lack the systems, processes, and controls necessary to collect, manage, and analyse nature-related data effectively. Developing the infrastructure needed to support comprehensive nature-related reporting can be complex and resource-intensive, particularly where data must be gathered across value chains or from external sources. As a result, some entities may perceive the costs of implementation to outweigh the immediate benefits of disclosure, at least in the short term.
95The FTSE 100 review observed reference to nature-related skills and competencies in relation to the Board and Management in a small number of reports, and references to training related to nature in an even smaller number.
Research question 3: How might nature-related risks and opportunities affect a company's prospects?
96Similar to climate-related reporting, assessing the financial effects of nature-related risks and opportunities on an entity's prospects is likely to be one of the most challenging aspects for entities. Both the literature and stakeholder engagement highlighted significant difficulties in translating complex, location-specific, and often uncertain nature-related risks and opportunities into robust assessments of financial effects. While some stakeholders questioned the usefulness of quantification, others noted that quantification can be valuable in specific circumstances, particularly where it supports decision-making, prioritisation, or comparison of alternative actions.
97Current reporting practice suggests that few entities are able to provide meaningful disclosures on the financial effects of nature-related risks and opportunities, whether qualitative or quantitative. While the large majority of the FTSE 100 entities reported on some nature-related risks, examples of financial quantification are exceedingly rare. Where found, these tended to be climate-led risks which affect nature-related topics (e.g. valuations of the risk of extreme weather events).
98The TNFD (2025) review on the financial effects of nature-related risks found that information, nature is often not deemed financially material in corporate reports even where materiality would be expected. Despite being a critical pathway to potential risk affecting the financial prospects of a business, dependencies on nature remain poorly understood and typically underexplored.
99Evidence on financial impacts remains relatively limited and is often expressed in general terms. The literature commonly identifies potential effects including higher operating costs, increased compliance and insurance costs, reduced productivity, stranded assets, restricted access to finance, and adverse effects on enterprise value. Some studies have attempted to quantify these risks. For example, research by GFI suggests that physical nature-related risks could result in valuation adjustments of up to 4-5% for UK domestic holdings in the banking sector over the coming decade.
100While the literature generally suggests that risks are likely to outweigh opportunities, it also highlights the potential economic benefits of addressing nature-related opportunities. For example, the World Economic Forum (2024) suggested that nature-positive policies are expected to generate over $10 trillion in new business value and create 395 million jobs by 2030 globally.
101The majority of FTSE 100 reports were found to contain references to nature-related opportunities, most commonly related to product or service innovations. Where linked clearly to customer demand or revenue growth, these opportunities were demonstrated to affect the entity's prospects. However, where these links were made, they were largely done so vaguely in narrative as opposed to being quantified. An exception here was the Financials sector, where opportunities were translated into monetary values placed against nature-related products.
102A key challenge is that methodologies for assessing nature-related financial effects are less developed than those used for climate-related risks. Nature-related datasets often lack the spatial and operational granularity needed for financial analysis, and converting scientific or location-specific indicators into financial parameters remains difficult. As a result, financial assessments are highly sensitive to assumptions, methodologies, and time horizons, with outcomes often subject to considerable uncertainty.
103Stakeholders emphasised that understanding the direction, scale, and significance of risks may be more achievable than producing reliable financial estimates. There was concern that quantified figures can imply a degree of precision that is not supported by the underlying evidence and may therefore be misleading.
104Consistent with this view, both the literature and stakeholder feedback suggest that primary users do not necessarily require precise quantified estimates of financial effects. Rather, they are principally interested in understanding an entity's exposure to and management of nature-related risks and opportunities.
105The literature also considers the financial implications of disclosure itself. Proactive nature strategy and good quality disclosure could lead to better access to capital. For example, Bassen et al. (2025) suggests that better quality disclosure could be associated with lower cost of equity. However, some literature observed that entities may also use positive responsible-business credentials strategically to manage reputational risk, rather than to provide transparent accounts of nature-related risks.
Research question 4: What are primary users' expectations?
106There was broad consensus from stakeholder engagement and the literature that primary users seek nature-related disclosures to better understand, assess, and manage risks within their portfolios. The Responsible Investor nature and investor survey 2025 found that 56% of respondents were very concerned about the effects of nature loss on financial markets, while 59% ranked nature among their top three sustainability concerns. Similarly, Gjerde et al. (2026) reported that more than two-thirds of surveyed corporates had experienced increased investor attention to nature-related issues over the previous three to five years.
107Primary users are focusing on how entities identify and respond to risks and are asking for information about impacts and dependencies to understand their own risk profile. Primary users have indicated that they are primarily interested in understanding whether an entity is exposed to nature-related risks and opportunities, its governance and management approach, and the actions being taken to mitigate risks or realise opportunities.
108While primary users are gaining a better understanding of the significance of nature-related risks, there are still challenges in how to track these risks in a systematic way.
Drivers of interest
109The literature suggests that primary users are anticipating regulatory or legal action regarding nature which is driving their interest in nature-related information. Additionally, public awareness of nature-related risks and opportunities is also a driving factor.
110There seems to be a growing concern from primary users about nature-related risks in their portfolios, although climate change is still perceived as being the priority issue. Some of the literature suggests that although primary user interest has increased, there is still limited understanding about how nature-related risks could lead to financial effects on an entity or across a whole portfolio.
111One paper (Nature Ecology & Evolution 2023) cautioned about the potential tensions between conservation needs (which require patient, long-term investment) and the typical short-term financial goals of large private investors.
Decision-useful information
112When asked what makes information ‘decision useful', primary users noted that:
- the quality of information is more important than quantity.
- the purpose and benefits of each data point should be considered, including the preparation effort and how the information is likely to be used by primary users.
- quantitative information is not always necessary, but it is important to have an explanation of how nature-related dependencies and impacts translate into financial risks and opportunities.
- the identification of the risks and opportunities is important, but primary users are especially interested in the actions taken by entities in response to the risks.
113Although demand for information on nature-related risks and opportunities appears to be increasing, an important question is the extent to which such information influences investment and lending decisions, rather than simply being viewed as a topic of interest. Stakeholder engagement suggested that primary users often consider nature-related issues to be important, but there is limited evidence on whether nature-related information directly changes investment decisions or capital allocation outcomes.
Challenges
114Insufficient and non-standardised disclosures on nature-related risks mean that risks are likely to be over- or underpriced. Primary users need more comprehensive and transparent disclosures to be able to fully assess the extent to which nature-related risks and opportunities are likely to affect an entity's prospects. In the RI nature and investor survey, 63% of respondents indicated that they had insufficient data to be able to effectively measure nature-related dependencies, impacts, risks and opportunities.
115The literature also raises questions about whether primary users have adequate knowledge and understanding of nature-related matters to assess the significance of related risks. Familiarity differs across topics, with water, waste and deforestation generally better understood than biodiversity. Similarly, impacts tend to be better understood than dependencies.
Research question 5: Might there be any specific issues in the UK with introducing nature-related disclosure requirements?
Impacts on the UK economy
116HM Government's national security assessment (2026) concluded that global ecosystem degradation and collapse threaten UK national security and prosperity, especially linked to water and food insecurity.
117The GFI 2024 report noted that 'the deterioration of the UK's natural environment could lead to an estimated 6-12% loss to GDP by 2030. The Bank of England has already identified that half of UK GDP and nearly three-quarters of the stock of UK lending exhibits some level of dependence on ecosystem services.
UK entities with international reach
118Many of the UK's nature-related risks originate overseas through supply chains and financial exposures. Internationally exposed UK entities might also face trade and competitiveness effects from environmental protection costs.
119Although 'nature' is often characterised as a local issue, it transcends jurisdictional boundaries which highlights the importance of international standardisation. Differing reporting requirements across jurisdictions create information asymmetry, which not only makes preparing nature-related disclosures more difficult for reporting entities, but also creates challenges for primary users to assess exposures to nature-related risks and opportunities.
The UK's commitments to international agreements
120The UK is a signatory of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) which was adopted by 196 countries during COP15 of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in December 2022. This framework sets out four overarching goals for 2050 and 23 targets for 2030 aimed at safeguarding and sustainably using biodiversity, including Target 15 which is to:
Take legal, administrative or policy measures to encourage and enable business, and in particular to ensure that large and transnational companies and financial institutions: (a) Regularly monitor, assess, and transparently disclose their risks, dependencies and impacts on biodiversity, including with requirements for all large as well as transnational companies and financial institutions along their operations, supply and value chains and portfolios.
121As a signatory to the GBF, the UK has specific commitments that are aligned to 2050 goals and 2030 targets.
UK's strategic commitments
122Over the past 6 years, there have been a number of strategic documents published by the Government that included reference to nature-related matters. For example, the 2023 Green Finance Strategy and the 2030 Strategic Framework for International Climate and Nature Action included commitments related to ISSB and TNFD reporting. More recently in the Environmental Improvement Plan 2025 published in December 2025, there were also commitments relating to TNFD and UK Sustainability Reporting Standards (UK SRS).
UK reporting requirements
123The Companies Act 2006 requires the disclosure of information on environmental matters, including the principal risks and relevant non-financial KPIs. Although this legislation is not specific to 'nature' and does not provide any nature-specific requirements, entities captured by this legislation are likely to already report environment-related information in the Strategic Report.
124Although not mandatory, the Environmental Reporting Guidelines (2019) published by the UK Government are designed for those entities that are required to comply with SECR regulations, but also for any organisation that voluntarily reports on a range of environmental matters. The guidance includes the following topics:
- Water
- Waste
- Resource Efficiency and Materials
- Emissions to Air, Land and Water
- Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
125The UK SRS were issued by the UK Government in February 2026, incorporating the ISSB Standards into the UK reporting framework. In particular, UK SRS S1 requires entities to disclose information about all sustainability-related risks and opportunities that are likely to affect the entities' prospects. At the time of publication, application of the UK SRS remains voluntary, and UK entities are not yet required to use these standards.
Other notable UK regulations
126The Biodiversity Net Gain (BNG) regulations are specific to development and require (property) developers to ensure that habitats for wildlife are left in a measurably better state than they were before the development. Under the regulations, developers are required to deliver a BNG of 10% on their developments. There are no requirements to disclose information about BNG in annual reports.
127There are also several regulations that are related to nature, but do not have a direct relationship with reporting requirements. For example, Hazardous Waste (England and Wales) Regulations 2005 require those businesses that receive, reject, treat or dispose of hazardous waste to report to the Environment Agency on how hazardous waste is received, treated or disposed of.
Conclusions
128Nature-related reporting already exists in the UK. However, reporting on nature-related risks and opportunities remains nascent, fragmented and less mature than climate-related reporting. Although entities increasingly disclose information about their impacts on nature, reporting does not consistently explain dependencies, or how impacts and dependencies translate into risks, opportunities and financial effects.
129Primary user interest is growing, but there is limited evidence that nature-related information currently influences investment or lending decisions. Inconsistent materiality assessments, fragmented frameworks, location and value-chain complexities, and continuing data and capability gaps might further limit the comparability and decision-usefulness of disclosures for primary users.
130Nature presents distinctive reporting challenges because it is multidimensional, dynamic, interconnected and location specific. Nature-related dependencies, impacts, risks and opportunities can vary by ecosystem, geography, industry, business model and time horizon. They may also interact and generate cascading effects that are difficult to identify at an individual entity level.
131Value chains present a further challenge, particularly for UK entities whose exposure to nature-related risks and opportunities is likely to arise through the value chain (which may be overseas) rather than direct operations. Limited traceability, complex product portfolios, composite materials and extensive supplier networks can make it difficult to identify the nature-related exposure of products and materials.
132This international exposure reinforces the importance of interoperability. Significant differences between reporting standards and frameworks, and jurisdictional requirements, could create duplication in disclosures and make it more difficult to identify and compare financially material information.
Further research
133The TAC Secretariat has identified a need to further explore where primary users source their information from, and how a reporting standard would improve their decision-making. The TAC Secretariat therefore proposes conducting further stakeholder outreach that targets primary users as part of the TAC's response to the ISSB's upcoming consultation on nature-related disclosures.
134Additionally, the TAC Secretariat is in contact with researchers at the Earth Capital Nexus who are completing research about how nature-related disclosures are informing investment decision-making. Once available, this research may provide further insight into the decision-usefulness of nature-related disclosures for primary users.
Abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Full term |
|---|---|
| BNG | Biodiversity net gain |
| CBD | Convention on Biological Diversity |
| CSRD | Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive |
| DIRO | Dependencies, impacts, risks and opportunities |
| ERM | Enterprise risk management |
| ESRS | European Sustainability Reporting Standards |
| FTSE 100 | Financial Times Stock Exchange 100 Index |
| GBF | Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework |
| GFI | Green Finance Institute |
| GRI | Global Reporting Initiative |
| IFRS S1 | IFRS S1 General Requirements for Disclosure of Sustainability-related Financial Information |
| ISAE 3000 / ISAE (UK) 3000 | ISAE 3000/ISAE (UK) 3000 Assurance Engagements Other Than Audits Or Reviews Of Historical Financial Information |
| ISSB | International Sustainability Standards Board |
| NGO | Non-Governmental Organisation |
| SASB | Sustainability Accounting Standards Board |
| SECR | Streamlined Energy and Carbon Reporting |
| SICS | Sustainable Industry Classification System |
| TAC | UK Sustainability Disclosure Technical Advisory Committee |
| TCFD | Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures |
| TNFD | Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures |
| UK SRS | UK Sustainability Reporting Standards |
Appendix 1: Literature review summary
135Workstream 1 of the nature-related research consisted of a review of existing literature on nature-related disclosure.
136A targeted literature review was undertaken using sources identified through internet searches and documents obtained from professional contacts. Relevant literature was selected based on its contribution to the five research questions, and included:
- academic papers and articles;
- current UK regulation and international frameworks;
- reports and research produced by standard-setters and regulators in other jurisdictions;
- news articles; and
- reports and research produced by third parties such as consultancies, accounting firms, and NGOs.
137Microsoft Copilot was used to support the evidence extraction process. A structured prompt, developed iteratively with Copilot, was applied consistently across all documents to identify relevant evidence aligned to the research questions. Extracted evidence included direct quotations and complete source citations to facilitate quality assurance and traceability.
138The synthesis and analysis of the extracted evidence were conducted manually by the TAC Secretariat. Through an iterative review process, themes and patterns were identified across the literature and used to inform the findings.
139Microsoft Copilot was also used to generate the summary matrix which included information about the sources reviewed, their key messages, and limitations.
140As an AI-assisted review process was used, all evidence extraction outputs generated by Copilot were reviewed and validated by the TAC Secretariat prior to inclusion in the analysis.
General observations from the literature review
141Although there is a growing body of literature on nature-related disclosures, the current literature is limited and did not provide all the information needed to answer the research questions. In particular, the literature was often high-level and did not provide sufficient detail or evidence. For example, when considering the financial effects of nature-related risks and opportunities on entities' prospects, the literature often provided a generalised view as to how entities might be financially affected by nature-related risks and opportunities.
142Additionally, there was limited evidence on the specific information needs of primary users and the extent to which nature-related information is incorporated into investment and lending decisions. While the sources agreed that there is a growing interest from primary users for this information, there was little insight as to how nature-related information is collected, analysed, and used in decision-making processes.
143A further challenge is the different scopes used within the literature. Some sources focused on specific aspects of nature (e.g. biodiversity or oceans), rather than considering nature as a broader concept. Additionally, the terms 'nature' and 'biodiversity' were sometimes used interchangeably, despite biodiversity being only one component of nature. Literature focusing on individual elements of nature was included in this review because developments in nature-related reporting are still emerging and relevant evidence is dispersed across multiple disciplines and subject areas. Excluding these sources could have risked overlooking insights that are relevant to understanding nature-related disclosures more broadly.
144Similarly, some sources approach nature-related reporting from a policy or sustainability perspective and identify support for a 'nature-positive transition' as the primary objective of disclosure. This perspective does not fully align with the objectives of the IFRS Sustainability Disclosure Standards, which focus on information that is useful to primary users in making capital allocation decisions. However, these sources were included because they provide important context on how nature-related reporting is evolving and help explain many of the concepts, frameworks, and expectations that are influencing reporting practice and stakeholder views.
145Finally, much of the literature is not UK-specific and often presents global or generalised perspectives on nature-related issues. While this limits its usefulness in assessing UK-specific issues, it was necessary to draw on international evidence given the relatively limited UK-focused research currently available. The literature therefore provides a useful indication of emerging themes and issues.
Literature summary matrix
146The table below provides a summary matrix of the sources used in this literature review.
| Document name | Author(s)/ organisation(s) | Year | Type of document | Context of the document | Key message relating to nature-related reporting | Limitations of the document | Link to the article online, if available |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2030 Strategic Framework for International Climate and Nature Action | HM Government | 2023 | Government strategic framework / policy publication | Framework that sets out how the UK intends to drive international action on climate and nature in an integrated way, following the Glasgow Climate Pact and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. | The document states that aligning global financial flows with a net zero, climate-resilient and nature-positive future requires primary users to have necessary information to factor climate and nature impacts into investment decisions. It supports global sustainability reporting standards, consistent and comparable sustainability disclosures, and the TNFD as the key vehicle for nature-related financial reporting in line with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. | The document is an international strategic framework rather than an empirical review of company nature-related reporting practice. The document discusses nature-related reporting mainly within the broader context of aligning global financial flows, international cooperation, sustainable finance and the UK's international climate and nature objectives. | https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/642a9b717de82b000c313473/2030-strategic-framework-for-international-climate-and-nature-action.pdf (accessed 19/05/2026) |
| Biodiversity on the balance sheet | Nature Ecology & Evolution | 2023 | Editorial | Editorial introducing a September 2023 issue discussion around TNFD, private finance for conservation, and accountability for nature loss, ahead of the September 2023 TNFD release. | The editorial says TNFD is intended to enable companies and organisations to report and act on nature-related risks. It notes concerns that reporting may focus on how nature-related risk affects company value while insufficiently addressing company impacts on nature and double materiality. | The document is an editorial, not an empirical study. It summarises and comments on three Comments in the issue. Its discussion of nature-related reporting focuses mainly on TNFD and associated concerns rather than a broad review of UK market practice. | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02196-5 (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Document name | Author(s)/ organisation(s) | Year | Type of document | Context of the document | Key message relating to nature-related reporting | Limitations of the document | Link to the article online, if available |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biodiversity Risk | Stefano Giglio; Theresa Kuchler; Johannes Stroebel; Xuran Zeng National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) |
2023 | Academic working paper | NBER working paper circulated for discussion and comment. The paper develops measures to understand biodiversity risk using news, 10-K statements, a survey of finance academics, professionals and regulators, and biodiversity fund holdings. | The paper finds biodiversity risk exposures vary across industries, are distinct from climate risk, and have some relationship with equity prices. It reports that standardised disclosure frameworks for biodiversity risk were still under development and that around 3.8% of 10-K statements mentioned biodiversity between 2015 and 2020. | The paper states NBER working papers are not peer-reviewed or reviewed by the NBER Board. Its survey had 668 complete responses and an overall response rate of about 4.5%; respondents tilted toward North America and Europe. Several measures use US sources such as NYT, Google searches and 10-K filings. | http://www.nber.org/papers/w31137 (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Hold big business to task on ecosystem restoration | Timothy A. C. Lamont; Jos Barlow; Jan Bebbington; Thomas Cuckston; Rili Djohani; Rachael Garrett; Holly P. Jones; Tries B. Razak; Nicholas A. J. Graham | 2023 | Policy forum article | Science Policy Forum article evaluating sustainability reports from 100 of the world's largest businesses to assess claims and reporting on ecosystem restoration. | The article reports that 66 of 100 businesses state they carry out ecosystem restoration, but reporting lacks rigour in defining restoration, methods and outcomes. It states a third omit project size, nearly 80% omit financial costs, over 90% report no ecological outcome, and none quantify social or economic impacts on local stakeholders or traditional owners. | The analysis is limited to sustainability reports from 100 large businesses, selected as the ten biggest corporations by revenue in each of ten represented sectors. It examines ecosystem restoration reporting specifically, not all nature-related disclosures, and its adherence analysis is limited to the 66 corporations claiming restoration activity. | https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh2610 (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Mobilising Green Investment: 2023 Green Finance Strategy | HM Government | 2023 | Government strategy / regulatory and policy publication | Updates the UK's 2019 Green Finance Strategy and sets out how the UK Government intends to mobilise green investment, reinforce the UK's position as a green finance centre, and support climate, nature and environmental objectives. | The strategy explicitly incorporates nature into the UK green finance framework. It states that the UK supports the Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD), will explore how the final TNFD framework should be incorporated into UK policy and legislative architecture, and recognises the need for consistent, comparable information on climate and nature-related risks, dependencies and impacts to support investors and financial markets. | This document is a government strategy and policy framework, not an empirical study of corporate nature-related reporting practice. The report discusses nature-related reporting largely within a broader green finance, sustainability disclosure and investment policy framework, rather than as a standalone assessment of company nature-reporting practice. | https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/643583fb877741001368d815/mobilising-green-investment-2023-green-finance-strategy.pdf (accessed 19/08/2026) |
| Assessing the Materiality of Nature-Related Financial Risks for the UK | Green Finance Institute | 2024 | Research report | UK-focused financial risk assessment under the Greening Finance for Nature initiative. The report develops a UK nature-related risk inventory, dependency analysis, sector nVaR scores, benchmark scenarios, macroeconomic modelling and a preliminary stress test for seven large UK banks. | The report states biodiversity loss and environmental degradation create material risks for the UK economy and financial sector. It notes information asymmetries from lack of nature-related risk and impact disclosures may mean risks are under-priced. The report identifies that around half of UK nature-related risks come from overseas, through supply chains and financial exposures, pointing toward the importance of working internationally to close the gaps in disclosures and risk management. | The report states estimates are preliminary and conservative. It focuses mainly on physical risks, with transition risks requiring further UK work. It notes nascent nature-risk modelling, large data gaps, limited empirical evidence, uncertain projections and incomplete capture of systemic, cascading and longer-term risks. | https://www.greenfinanceinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/GFI-UK-NATURE-RELATED-RISKS-FULL-REPORT.pdf (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Biodiversity reporting by United Kingdom (UK)-listed companies: A review of extent, content and readability of disclosures | Warren Maroun; Dusan Ecim | 2024 | Academic research article | Empirical study of biodiversity reporting by UK-listed companies. The authors developed a 14-indicator, 124-theme biodiversity reporting schematic and analysed annual, integrated and sustainability reports from 2018 to 2022 for the largest 75 UK-listed companies by market capitalisation. | The study finds biodiversity reporting by UK-listed firms remains largely under-developed. It reports limited policy-level disclosure on definitions, rationale and species details, and limited performance disclosure on targets, risk assessment, valuation, value-chain coverage, assurance and post-implementation review, despite some isolated best practice among leading reporters. | The study is limited to formal reports of 75 large UK-listed companies from 2018-2022. It assumes reported information reflects practice. The determinants of biodiversity reporting were deferred for future research. | https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.3866 (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Why businesses are waking up to the threat of nature-related risks | Gim Huay Neo, Daniel Pacthod World Economic Forum |
2024 | Practitioner insight article | World Economic Forum article published alongside its 2024 Annual Meeting. It describes the growing recognition of business dependencies and impacts on nature, developments in nature-related frameworks and regulation. | The article argues that nature loss and ecosystem collapse create significant business risks because more than half of global GDP is moderately or highly dependent on nature. It states that businesses increasingly need to assess and disclose their dependencies, impacts, risks and opportunities, develop credible nature-positive strategies, and report performance through recognised frameworks and platforms. | The article is a high-level practitioner opinion piece rather than an empirical study. Its claims and statistics are drawn from other World Economic Forum, McKinsey and third-party publications. It has a global rather than UK-specific focus and discusses nature-related reporting principally as part of a broader transition towards a nature-positive economy. | https://www.weforum.org/stories/nature-and-biodiversity/why-businesses-are-waking-up-to-the-threat-of-nature-related-risks/ (accessed 24/08/2026) |
| State of Nature-Related Disclosures: Assessing TNFD alignment of nature-related disclosures by firms in high-risk sectors | First Sentier MUFG Sustainable Investment Institute | 2024 | Investor research report | Investor-focused assessment of current nature-related disclosures against TNFD's 14 core recommendations. The report analyses 16 firms, two from each of eight TNFD priority sectors, selected for environmental performance, geographic spread and economic maturity. | The report finds 56% of sampled firms disclose information relevant to all 14 TNFD core recommendations and all 16 have set relevant nature-related targets. It also finds no organisation excelled across all TNFD pillars, monitoring mechanisms were weak, and no company assessed business resilience to nature loss. | The report covers only 16 firms and English-language public corporate disclosures. Sector gaps mean disclosures could not be detected, not necessarily that they do not exist. | https://www.firstsentier-mufg-sustainability.com/content/dam/sustainabilityinstitute/assets/research/SII-biodiversity-report.pdf (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| The move to mandatory reporting: Survey of Sustainability Reporting 2024 | KPMG International | 2024 | Practitioner research report | Global survey of annual, integrated and ESG/sustainability reports for 5,800 of the top 100 companies in 58 jurisdictions and the G250, using publicly available reporting primarily from 1 July 2023 to 30 June 2024. | KPMG reports biodiversity and nature risk reporting continues to increase: 56% of G250 companies and 49% of N100 companies report on biodiversity, up from 28% and 23% in 2020. It states TNFD and CSRD frameworks looked likely to drive increased biodiversity reporting, but growth has slowed in the last two years. | Findings are based only on publicly available information; no information was submitted directly by companies. In some cases, parent company results were applied to subsidiaries. The biodiversity section tracks whether companies report on loss of biodiversity and nature as a business risk, not quality or TNFD alignment. | https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmgsites/uk/pdf/2024/11/survey-of-sustainability-reporting.pdf (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Toward More Nature-Positive Outcomes: A Review of Corporate Disclosure and Decision Making on Biodiversity | Maheshika Senanayake; Iman Harymawan; Gregor Dorfleitner; Seungsoo Lee; Jay Hyuk Rhee; Yong Sik Ok | 2024 | Academic review article | Review article in Sustainability Journal examining corporate biodiversity disclosure, biodiversity materiality, mandatory and non-mandatory regulation, and major sustainability frameworks including GRI, SASB, CDP, TCFD and TNFD. | The article states biodiversity reporting is growing but current corporate disclosures and frameworks remain inconsistent. It identifies TNFD as the framework with the strongest focus on biodiversity-related corporate disclosure and says standardised, holistic biodiversity metrics and integration into financial decision-making remain insufficient. | The article is a literature review and states no new data were created or analysed. It notes a lack of empirical data to substantiate some suggestions because most businesses do not provide standardised biodiversity-related disclosures. | https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188110 (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Using transparency to drive action to protect and restore nature: EY Nature Risk Barometer | EY | 2024 | Practitioner benchmarking report | Benchmark of 369 companies across the US, Canada and Latin America against the 14 TNFD recommendations. The report uses public ESG, sustainability, annual, TCFD and CDP disclosures. | EY finds 94% of companies disclose on at least one TNFD recommendation, but average coverage is 75% and average alignment is 19%. The disparity between coverage and alignment indicates that the disclosures lacked detail. The report indicates limited board oversight, incomplete ERM integration, lack of financial-impact disclosures and sector variation, with financials lowest at 26% coverage and 8% alignment. | The analysis is region-specific and based on public disclosure coverage and alignment, not direct company submissions. | https://www.ey.com/en_us/insights/climate-change-sustainability-services/ey-nature-risk-barometer (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| 2025 Global Survey of Nature Risk Management at Financial Firms: An Emerging Discipline | Global Association of Risk Professionals (GARP) Risk Institute | 2025 | Industry survey report | Global survey of nature-risk management practices at 48 financial firms: 29 banks, 11 asset managers and 8 insurers. The report scores firms across governance, strategy, risk management, metrics/targets/limits, scenario analysis and disclosures using a maturity model. | The survey finds modest progress, but nature risk still lags climate risk. 73% of firms treat nature loss as a risk, 42% have identified nature-related risks or opportunities, and disclosure rates increased, but data availability and model reliability remain leading barriers. | The report cautions that year-on-year comparisons mix changes in practice with changes in the participating-firm population. It also notes lingering ambiguity between climate and nature risk, makes scoring allowances because the discipline is new, and is less confident in relative rankings than in climate surveys. | https://www.garp.org/white-paper/global-survey-nature-risk-2025 (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Assessing biodiversity-related disclosure: Drivers, outcomes, and financial impacts | Alexander Bassen; Daniel Buchholz; Kerstin Lopatta; Anna R. Rudolf | 2025 | Academic research article | Empirical study in Journal of Industrial Ecology analysing biodiversity-related disclosure quality in ESG reports. The study manually assesses GRI 304 biodiversity disclosure quality across 2,843 reports and derives 1,947 firm-year observations from 440 companies in 43 countries over 2010–2019. | The study finds biodiversity-related disclosure quality declined after 2015 despite rising recognition of biodiversity as material. Climate-risk awareness and climate strategy are associated with higher biodiversity-related disclosure quality, while climate-linked executive incentives are associated with lower biodiversity-related disclosure quality. Higher biodiversity-related disclosure quality affects primary risk perceptions and stakeholder sentiment. | The authors state GRI 304 compliance does not necessarily indicate actual materiality or validity of the biodiversity information. The sample is centred on large companies and ends before COVID-19. Quantitative biodiversity measures were difficult to compare across companies, including within the same industry. | https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13596 (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Biodiversity, Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services (BEES) Disclosure Practices: Observations in Australia and Korea | Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB) and Korea Sustainability Standards Board (KSSB) | 2025 | Standard-setter research report | AASB-KSSB exploratory study of annual and sustainability-related reports from 110 listed entities across 11 GICS sectors in Australia and Korea for FY2021 to FY2023. | The report finds BEES-related terms are increasingly appearing in both jurisdictions. Australia has higher overall BEES keyword counts, especially in Materials and Financials sectors, while Korea shows strong year-on-year growth, with Consumer Staples and IT sectors prominent. Air, water and waste topics dominate. | The report is frequency-based and does not assess disclosure quality, context or substance. The sample is large-cap weighted, keyword counts may capture unrelated terms, reporting practices vary across jurisdictions, and language, formatting and tool limitations may affect counts. | https://www.aasb.gov.au/media/irjbjzco/rr26_bees_09-25.pdf (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Companies around the world face risks from their reliance on nature | S&P Global Sustainable1 | 2025 | Market research / data insight article | S&P Global Sustainable1 analysis of nature dependency risk, Key Biodiversity Area (KBA) exposure, protected-area exposure, land use and ecosystem footprint across the S&P Global 1200 and broader S&P Global BMI universe. | The article finds 57% of S&P Global 1200 companies have significant nature dependency risk in direct operations, 71% have at least one asset in a KBA, and only 8% of companies assessed have biodiversity-protection commitments. | The analysis focuses on direct operations and terrestrial ecosystems, so supply-chain impacts may be underrepresented. Dependency risk relies on S&P Global Sustainable1 modelling, asset data and location-specific assumptions. Sector exposure can reflect footprint and asset ownership rather than full economy-wide impact. | https://www.spglobal.com/sustainable1/en/insights/special-editorial/companies-around-the-world-face-risks-from-their-reliance-on-nature (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Developing an approach to nature risk in Financial Services | Climate Financial Risk Forum (Nature-Related Risk Working Group) | 2025 | Practitioner handbook | Second CFRF nature-risk paper for banks, insurers and asset managers. It builds on the 2024 introductory paper and focuses on the climate-nature nexus, systemic risk assessment, financial materiality, scenario development, data, and practical integration into risk management. | The handbook asserts that financial institutions should assess climate and nature risks together because feedback loops, tipping points and ecosystem-service loss can create systemic financial risks. It recommends LEAP-based heatmaps, integrated scenarios, sensitivity analysis, customer engagement, model-limitations education and integration into enterprise risk management. | The paper emphasises nature-risk modelling is nascent, data is less standardised than climate data, and economic impact estimates vary widely. It warns many models exclude tipping points, feedback loops, nature risks, health impacts and socio-economic disruption, so outputs may understate risk and need careful interpretation. | https://www.fca.org.uk/publication/corporate/developing-approach-nature-risk-financial-services.pdf (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Environmental Improvement Plan 2025 | UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs | 2025 | Government environmental strategy | Revised Environmental Improvement Plan (EIP) for England, setting out a strategic framework for improving England's natural environment up to 2043. It revises the previous EIP and sets new interim targets for statutory Environment Act 2021 targets. | The document links nature recovery to private finance, business action and sustainability reporting. It encourages UK organisations to familiarise themselves with the TNFD nature-related risk management and disclosure framework, and commits to improving sustainability reporting by UK entities. | The document is a government delivery plan for England's natural environment, not an empirical study of company nature-related reporting practice. Nature-related reporting is discussed mainly as part of wider policy commitments on private investment, nature markets, TNFD awareness, and UK sustainability reporting standards. | https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/692d8d9cce50d215cae962a5/Environmental_Improvement_Plan_EIP_2025.pdf (accessed 19/08/2026) |
| Evidence on Companies' Biodiversity Disclosures | ACCA and Adam Smith Business School | 2025 | Research report | Exploratory study of 20 listed companies that committed to TNFD-aligned reporting by FY2024 or earlier. The authors use a 20-item disclosure index based on GRI 101: Biodiversity 2024 and analyse annual, sustainability, impact, biodiversity and supplement reports. | The report finds a moderate overall GRI 101 disclosure score of 39.64%. Policies to halt and reverse biodiversity loss score highest, while location-specific disclosures and direct drivers of biodiversity loss are scarce. Water pollutants, terrestrial ecosystem use and water use are the most frequently cited drivers. | The authors note some non-disclosures may reflect immateriality rather than non-adherence. The sample is skewed towards large, listed, TNFD-committed firms likely better placed to invest in reporting, meaning companies without such commitments may show lower levels of GRI 101 disclosure. | https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/343754/1/343754.pdf (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Evidence Review on the Financial Effects of Nature-related Risks | Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures | 2025 | Practitioner research report | Evidence review examining how nature-related risks can produce material financial effects for corporates and financial institutions. The study includes a scoping review and wider stakeholder engagement. It was developed in the context of the ISSB's research project on BEES. | The report finds extensive evidence that nature-related risks can affect companies' cash flows, financial performance, cost of capital and access to capital, and that this information may therefore influence investor decisions and capital allocation. The strongest company-level evidence relates to water scarcity, liability risk, reputational risk and policy risk. However, nature-related issues are frequently not identified as financially material in corporate reports, particularly when a financial-materiality lens is applied, and corporate dependencies on nature remain poorly understood and underexplored. | Company-specific evidence in academic literature is limited, and studies rarely establish the complete causal chain from an entity's impacts and dependencies, through nature-related hazards and transmission channels, to financial effects. The corporate-practice findings are based partly on limited stakeholder engagement and selected public disclosures, so they cannot be treated as representative of wider market practice. | https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5653990 (accessed 26/08/2026) |
| How can reporting shape a nature-positive future? EY Global Nature Action Barometer | EY | 2025 | Global benchmarking report | EY's first Global Nature Action Barometer analyses public nature-related disclosures from 435 companies across the Americas, EMEIA and Asia-Pacific, across ten SICS-aligned sectors. It scores coverage and alignment against TNFD's four disclosure pillars and 14 recommendations. | The report finds 93% of companies reference nature, but only 26% align with TNFD recommendations. Governance has the highest scores, metrics and targets the lowest alignment, and less than 3% of companies state goals with a nature-positive ambition. | The analysis draws on public disclosures and scores reporting rather than underlying performance. EY notes low alignment may reflect non-disclosure rather than absence of plans, while data accessibility, measurement approaches, capability gaps and uncertainty over nature strategy constrain reporting quality. | https://www.ey.com/content/dam/ey-unified-site/ey-com/en-gl/insights/assurance/documents/ey-global-nature-action-barometer-september-2025.pdf (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Identifying and closing gaps in corporate reporting of ocean impacts | J.-B. Jouffray; J. Virdin; J. Bebbington; R. Blasiak; A. Dunchus; M. Lo Presti; J. Pare; D. Prosi; J. P. Quintero; R. Rosenthal; P. Tortora; D. Vermeer | 2025 | Academic analysis article | Nature Sustainability Journal analysis of sustainability and annual reports from 75 of the largest companies across eight ocean-economy sectors. The study uses a typology of nine ocean environmental impact categories and content analysis to assess mentions, measurements and targets. | The article finds firms focus mainly on energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, with limited reporting on ocean-specific biodiversity and ecosystem impacts. Fewer than 25% of firms report metrics and targets for ocean-specific impacts, while 443 distinct indicators limit comparability. | This study only focuses on ocean-related matters. The study covers reports from 2018-2020 and excludes five of the original 80 firms because no reports were available. Indicator coding involved subjective judgement, and the study focuses on environmental impacts only, noting that ocean information governance must also address equity and justice. | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-025-01631-8 (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Integrating nature & biodiversity into investment - an asset owner perspective | Pensions for Purpose | 2025 | Research report | The report was commissioned by the First Sentier MUFG Sustainable Investment Institute and examines how asset owners are approaching nature and biodiversity, including motivations, challenges, reporting practices and investment considerations. | The report finds increasing integration of nature and biodiversity considerations by asset owners, driven primarily by perceived financial materiality rather than regulation. It also highlights continuing challenges in nature-related reporting, particularly around data variety, interpretation, metrics, and organisational capability. | The findings from this report were gathered from 20 asset managers and asset owners, and therefore cannot be considered as representative of the market. | https://www.investorsforpurpose.com/assets/uploads/2025-01-30-Impact-Lens-Biodiversity.pdf (accessed 12/08/2026) |
| TNFD Status Report | Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures | 2025 | Review of reporting practice | The TNFD's first status report which provides evidence on how companies are assessing and disclosing nature-related information. The report also includes information about the perception of primary users on the decision-usefulness of nature-related disclosures. | Globally, 620 organisations have publicly committed to aligning reporting with TNFD recommendations. 63% of the survey respondents believe their nature-related risks and opportunities are more significant, or as significant, as their climate-related risks and opportunities. On average, 8.7 (out of 14) of the TNFD recommendations have been disclosed by companies adopting the framework. | This study triangulates varied datasets with different sample sizes and confidence levels, and relies partly on self-reported market-participant survey data. It also explicitly states that it is not an assessment of the quality of nature-related reporting, only an overview of emerging practice. The findings may therefore overstate market maturity and are best treated as a baseline snapshot rather than robust evidence of disclosure effectiveness. | https://tnfd.global/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/250918_TNFD-Status-Report_DIGITAL.pdf?v=175880860 (accessed 12/08/2026) |
| RI Nature and Investor Survey 2025 | Responsible Investor (RI) | 2025 | Survey | RI survey of 100 global asset managers and asset owners which took place between May to June 2025. | 56% of respondents were very concerned about the impact of nature loss on the financial market, 59% of respondents ranked nature as a 'top three' sustainability concern. The main business risks that are perceived are reduced productivity of nature systems (77%) and supply chain risks (71%), with changing consumer preferences (11%) and sustainability requirements & labels (8%) at the bottom of the list. Water (81%) and deforestation (74%) were highlighted as most financially material risks for investment portfolios. 63% of respondents believed that they did not have sufficient data to effectively measure nature-related risks. | 66% of the respondents were from Europe and 20% from North America, making the survey results tilted towards the perceptions in these markets. | https://www.responsible-investor.com/ri-nature-and-investors-survey-2025-results/ (accessed 12/08/2026) |
| Business Briefing: Tools and Tool Stack for Nature Reporting | Neytullah Ciftci Pentland Centre for Sustainability in Business, Lancaster University |
2026 | Academic business briefing / practitioner guidance article | Lancaster University business briefing explaining how organisations can select, combine and sequence tools to support nature-related assessment and reporting. The briefing draws on a chapter from the forthcoming Handbook on Nature and Biodiversity Reporting. | The briefing argues that no single dataset, model or platform can provide a complete picture of an entity's nature-related DIRO because nature is multidimensional and location-specific. It proposes that organisations develop a purposefully assembled "nature tool stack". For report users, the coherence and transparency of the tool stack can help indicate whether nature is embedded in business decision-making or treated primarily as a reporting exercise. | The briefing is conceptual and illustrative rather than a systematic or empirical assessment of nature-reporting tools or corporate practice. | https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/pentland/news-and-events/blog/business-briefing-tools-and-tool-stack-for-nature-reporting (accessed 24/08/2026) |
| Corporate nature risk perceptions | Snorre Gjerde; Zacharias Sautner; Alexander F. Wagner; Alexis Wegerich | 2026 | Peer-reviewed finance journal article | Review of Finance article based on a global survey of 385 portfolio companies of a large asset owner. It examines corporate nature-risk exposure, nature-risk management, disclosure plans, investor attention and investor engagement. | Nearly half of surveyed companies see nature risks as financially material, and 74% provide or plan disclosure. However, investor integration appears incomplete: fewer than 25% of respondents believe investors assess cashflow or cost-of-capital effects from nature risks. | The sample is likely skewed toward firms with higher nature-risk awareness, and the response rate was around 6%. Anonymous responses limit firm-level matching. The authors also note evolving standards, sparse historic disclosures and uncertainty in measuring multidimensional nature risks. | https://doi.org/10.1093/rof/rfaf050 (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Global biodiversity loss, ecosystem collapse and national security: A national security assessment | HM Government | 2026 | National security assessment | UK government assessment of how global biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse could affect UK national security, resilience and prosperity. It identifies critical ecosystems for UK interests and uses intelligence-style uncertainty frameworks, expert judgement and literature review. | The assessment frames biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse as national-security risks, with cascading implications for food and water security, migration, conflict, economic insecurity, disease risk and resource competition. It emphasises UK exposure through food imports and supply-chain dependencies. | The document states it is not a scientific report. It assesses a reasonable worst-case scenario and uses intelligence uncertainty frameworks. Confidence is lower on exact timing and pathways of ecosystem collapse, reflecting complex feedback loops, multiple drivers and data gaps. | https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nature-security-assessment-on-global-biodiversity-loss-ecosystem-collapse-and-national-security/national-security-assessment-on-global-ecosystems-accessible-version (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Summary for Policymakers of the Methodological Assessment Report on the Impact and Dependence of Business on Biodiversity and Nature's Contributions to People | Inter-governmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) | 2026 | Inter-governmental assessment summary for policymakers | IPBES summary for policymakers from the Business and Biodiversity Assessment, approved at IPBES Plenary 12 in February 2026. It evaluates methods for measuring business impacts and dependencies on biodiversity and explains actions by governments, finance, business and civil society. | All businesses depend on and impact biodiversity and can act now using existing methods. Reporting and disclosure are presented as parts of an enabling environment, but credible strategies require measurement, transparency, common data standards and verifiable biodiversity outcomes. | The assessment highlights significant method and data limitations: no single metric fits all decisions, adoption is uneven, dependencies are less understood than impacts, Indigenous and local knowledge is often underused, and many disclosures remain voluntary or incomplete. | https://www.ipbes.net/business-impact (accessed 05/08/2026) |
| Too Big to Fail: critical natural systems as macro-critical infrastructure. The economic, finance and governance implications of 'systemically important' natural systems | Nicola Ranger, Thea Philip, Tom Tayler and Emma O’Donnell Earth Capital Nexus, London School of Economics and Political Sciences |
2026 | Academic policy insight | Policy paper examining the macroeconomic, financial and governance implications of natural systems that are foundational to economic stability and resilience. It synthesises existing literature and undertakes conceptual governance analysis. | The paper argues that some natural systems function as macro-critical infrastructure because their degradation could affect economic growth, inflation, fiscal balances, sovereign risk, supply chains and financial stability. Existing firm-level disclosure frameworks may illuminate corporate impacts, dependencies, risks and opportunities, but do not adequately identify or capture cross-border, interconnected and systemic risks arising from the degradation of critical natural systems. This paper cautions that corporate reporting remains limited, risks may be underpriced, and disclosures alone cannot address or manage systemic risks that cannot be diversified away. | The paper is explicitly a conceptual exploration intended to stimulate debate and further research rather than a tested policy framework or systematic review. The report discusses reporting as one component of a much broader economic and financial governance response. | https://earthcapitalnexus.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Too-big-to-fail_critical-natural-systems-as-macrocritical-infrastructure.pdf (accessed 26/08/2026) |
Appendix 2: FTSE 100 review entities
147Workstream 2 of this research project was a content analysis of annual reports and accounts published by FTSE 100 entities. The entities that were included in the analysis are listed below, including the market cap at the time, and the SASB SICS sector and industry classifications.
148This list of FTSE 100 entities is taken as at 11 February 2026.
149The detailed findings from the FTSE 100 review, and information about the methodology, are presented in a supplementary report.
| Entity name | Market cap (m) | SASB SICS sector | SASB SICS industry |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3i GROUP PLC | 33,722.86 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| ADMIRAL GROUP PLC | 8,398.87 | Financials | Insurance |
| AIRTEL AFRICA PLC | 12,251.79 | Technology & Communications | Telecommunication Services |
| ALLIANCE WITAN PLC | 4,834.47 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| ANGLO AMERICAN PLC | 42,185.98 | Extractives & Minerals Processing | Metals & Mining |
| ANTOFAGASTA PLC | 35,964.05 | Extractives & Minerals Processing | Metals & Mining |
| ASHTEAD GROUP PLC | 20,746.07 | Resource Transformation | Industrial Machinery & Goods |
| ASSOCIATED BRITISH FOODS PLC | 13,890.07 | Food & Beverage | Processed Foods |
| ASTRAZENECA PLC | 219,675.79 | Health Care | Biotechnology & Pharmaceuticals |
| AUTOTRADER GROUP PLC | 4,010.40 | Technology & Communications / Services | Internet Media & Services / Media & Entertainment |
| AVIVA PLC | 19,110.86 | Financials | Insurance |
| BABCOCK INTERNATIONAL GROUP PLC | 6,812.24 | Services | Professional & Commercial Services |
| BAE SYSTEMS PLC | 57,709.16 | Resource Transformation | Aerospace & defence |
| BARCLAYS PLC | 65,541.43 | Financials | Commercial Banks |
| BARRATT REDROW PLC | 5,535.53 | Infrastructure | Home Builders |
| BEAZLEY PLC | 7,367.98 | Financials | Insurance |
| BERKELEY GROUP HOLDINGS (THE) PLC | 4,041.04 | Infrastructure | Home Builders |
| BP PLC | 70,391.05 | Extractives & Minerals Processing | Oil & Gas - Exploration & Production |
| BRITISH AMERICAN TOBACCO PLC | 95,096.60 | Food & Beverage | Tobacco |
| BRITISH LAND CO PLC | 4,105.49 | Infrastructure | Real Estate |
| BT GROUP PLC | 19,835.58 | Technology & Communications | Telecommunication Services |
| BUNZL PLC | 7,022.42 | Consumer Goods | Multiline and Specialty Retailers & Distributors |
| BURBERRY GROUP PLC | 4,387.88 | Consumer Goods | Apparel, Accessories & Footwear |
| CENTRICA PLC | 8,783.78 | Infrastructure | Gas Utilities & Distributors |
| COCA-COLA EUROPACIFIC PARTNERS PLC | 31,795.65 | Food & Beverage | Non-Alcoholic Beverages |
| COCA-COLA HBC AG | 16,278.73 | Food & & Beverage | Non-Alcoholic Beverages |
| COMPASS GROUP PLC | 35,760.06 | Food & Beverage | Restaurants |
| CONVATEC GROUP PLC | 4,378.87 | Health Care | Medical Equipment & Supplies |
| CRODA INTERNATIONAL PLC | 4,469.73 | Resource Transformation | Chemicals |
| DCC PLC | 4,231.86 | Extractives & Minerals Processing | Oil & Gas - Refining & Marketing |
| DIAGEO PLC | 40,387.60 | Food & Beverage | Alcoholic Beverages |
| DIPLOMA PLC | 7,414.32 | Consumer Goods | Multiline and Specialty Retailers & Distributors |
| EASYJET PLC | 3,647.54 | Transportation | Airlines |
| ENDEAVOUR MINING PLC | 10,681.04 | Extractives & Minerals Processing | Metals & Mining |
| ENTAIN PLC | 4,014.15 | Services | Casinos & Gaming |
| EXPERIAN PLC | 22,668.21 | Services | Professional & Commercial Services |
| F&C INVESTMENT TRUST PLC | 5,998.42 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| FRESNILLO PLC | 28,001.96 | Extractives & Minerals Processing | Metals & Mining |
| GAMES WORKSHOP GROUP PLC | 5,600.90 | Consumer Goods | Toys & Sporting Goods |
| GLENCORE PLC | 58,260.17 | Extractives & Minerals Processing | Metals & Mining |
| GSK PLC | 88,369.51 | Health Care | Biotechnology & Pharmaceuticals |
| HALEON PLC | 35,662.81 | Health Care | Biotechnology & Pharmaceuticals |
| HALMA PLC | 13,765.94 | Resource Transformation | Electrical & Electronic Equipment |
| HIKMA PHARMACEUTICALS PLC | 3,439.24 | Health Care | Biotechnology & Pharmaceuticals |
| HISCOX LD | 4,726.67 | Financials | Insurance |
| HOWDEN JOINERY GROUP PLC | 4,665.37 | Consumer Goods | Building Products & Furnishings |
| HSBC HLDGS PLC | 224,308.63 | Financials | Commercial Banks |
| ICG PLC | 4,935.07 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| IMI PLC | 7,044.67 | Resource Transformation | Industrial Machinery & Goods |
| IMPERIAL BRANDS PLC | 25,811.21 | Food & Beverage | Tobacco |
| INFORMA PLC | 10,927.68 | Services | Media & Entertainment |
| INTERCONTINENTAL HOTELS GROUP PLC | 16,213.00 | Services | Hotels & Lodging |
| INTERTEK GROUP PLC | 6,997.74 | Services | Professional & Commercial Services |
| INTL CONSOLIDATED AIRLINES GROUP SA | 19,922.22 | Transportation | Airlines |
| JD SPORTS FASHION PLC | 4,003.56 | Consumer Goods | Multiline and Specialty Retailers & Distributors |
| KINGFISHER PLC | 5,980.60 | Consumer Goods | Multiline and Specialty Retailers & Distributors |
| LAND SECURITIES GROUP PLC | 4,898.58 | Infrastructure | Real Estate |
| LEGAL & GENERAL GROUP PLC | 15,144.43 | Financials | Insurance |
| LLOYDS BANKING GROUP PLC | 60,607.62 | Financials | Commercial Banks |
| LONDON STOCK EXCHANGE GROUP PLC | 37,261.53 | Financials | Security & Commodity Exchanges |
| LONDONMETRIC PROPERTY PLC | 4,698.19 | Infrastructure | Real Estate |
| M&G PLC | 7,468.85 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| MARKS & SPENCER GROUP PLC | 7,856.49 | Consumer Goods | Multiline and Specialty Retailers & Distributors |
| MELROSE INDUSTRIES PLC | 8,052.09 | Resource Transformation | Aerospace & defence |
| METLEN ENERGY & METALS PLC | 4,473.68 | Infrastructure / Extractives & Minerals Processing | Electric Utilities & Power Generators / Metals & Mining |
| MONDI PLC | 4,133.39 | Resource Transformation | Containers & Packaging |
| NATIONAL GRID PLC | 64,229.08 | Infrastructure | Electric Utilities & Power Generators |
| NATWEST GROUP PLC | 48,309.66 | Financials | Commercial Banks |
| NEXT PLC | 15,613.11 | Consumer Goods | Multiline and Specialty Retailers & Distributors |
| PEARSON PLC | 5,738.14 | Services | Media & Entertainment |
| PERSHING SQUARE HOLDINGS LTD | 8,114.96 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| PERSIMMON PLC | 4,595.80 | Infrastructure | Home Builders |
| POLAR CAPITAL TECHNOLOGY TRUST PLC | 5,548.63 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| PRUDENTIAL PLC | 29,745.16 | Financials | Insurance |
| RECKITT BENCKISER GROUP PLC | 40,722.63 | Consumer Goods | Household & Personal Products |
| RELX PLC | 38,955.61 | Services | Media & Entertainment |
| RENTOKIL INITIAL PLC | 11,902.70 | Services | Professional & Commercial Services |
| RIGHTMOVE PLC | 3,381.81 | Technology & Communications | Internet Media & Services |
| RIO TINTO PLC | 88,854.50 | Extractives & Minerals Processing | Metals & Mining |
| ROLLS-ROYCE HOLDINGS PLC | 104,837.41 | Resource Transformation | Aerospace & defence |
| SAINSBURY(J) PLC | 7,646.51 | Food & Beverage | Food Retailers & Distributors |
| SCHRODERS PLC | 7,525.24 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| SCOTTISH MORTGAGE INV TST PLC | 13,361.77 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| SEGRO PLC | 10,327.17 | Infrastructure | Real Estate |
| SEVERN TRENT PLC | 9,068.77 | Infrastructure | Water Utilities & Services |
| SHELL PLC | 160,892.35 | Extractives & Minerals Processing | Oil & Gas - Exploration & Production |
| SMITH & NEPHEW PLC | 10,937.08 | Health Care | Medical Equipment & Supplies |
| SMITHS GROUP PLC | 8,192.98 | Resource Transformation | Industrial Machinery & Goods |
| SPIRAX GROUP PLC | 4,946.35 | Resource Transformation | Industrial Machinery & Goods |
| SSE PLC | 30,909.68 | Infrastructure | Electric Utilities & Power Generators |
| ST.JAMES'S PLACE PLC | 7,638.64 | Financials | Asset Management & Custody Activities |
| STANDARD CHARTERED PLC | 40,343.78 | Financials | Commercial Banks |
| STANDARD LIFE PLC | 7,365.98 | Financials | Insurance |
| TESCO PLC | 29,269.68 | Food & Beverage | Food Retailers & Distributors |
| THE SAGE GROUP PLC | 7,979.50 | Technology & Communications | Software & IT Services |
| UNILEVER PLC | 114,371.92 | Consumer Goods | Household & Personal Products |
| UNITED UTILITIES GROUP PLC | 8,752.04 | Infrastructure | Water Utilities & Services |
| VODAFONE GROUP PLC | 26,025.39 | Technology & Communications | Telecommunication Services |
| WEIR GROUP PLC | 9,039.69 | Resource Transformation | Industrial Machinery & Goods |
| WHITBREAD PLC | 4,590.21 | Services | Hotels & Lodging |
Appendix 3: Stakeholder engagement
150 Workstream 3 of this research project was a series of roundtables with experts on nature-related disclosure.
151 Sixteen participants were selected based on their expertise and experience in nature-related disclosure. The group represented a broad range of stakeholder perspectives, including:
- 4 preparers
- 6 primary users (the majority of whom were also preparers)
- 3 academics
- 2 data providers
- 1 non-governmental organisation
152 Three roundtables were held virtually and operated under the Chatham House Rule. Each session followed a semi-structured format, with participants receiving briefing materials one week in advance to support informed discussion.
| Topic | Session 1 (Held) | Session 2 (Held) | Session 3 (Scheduled) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Topic for discussion | Overview of themes and challenges associated with nature-related disclosures | Material information about financial effects of nature-related risks and opportunities | Findings of the literature review and FTSE 100 content analysis. |
153 Microsoft Copilot was used as a note taker to summarise discussions by theme. All summaries were reviewed and verified by the TAC Secretariat to ensure their accuracy and consistency with the discussions held.
154 The topics discussed at each session are set out below. These topics were informed by the issues identified and agreed by the TAC at its April 2026 meeting (Paper 2026-TAC-011), as well as the preliminary findings from the literature review and FTSE 100 content analysis undertaken as part of the research project.
| Topic | Findings |
|---|---|
| Materiality, controls, and transparency | Primary users would benefit from increased transparency over how significance and materiality was determined, including the decision trail, thresholds, assumptions, indicators, aggregation, and prioritisation processes. Unclear guidance on prospects, time horizons, and evidence thresholds could lead to either underestimation or overestimation of nature-related risks and opportunities. Current approaches to materiality are inconsistent and entities have very different understandings of nature-related risk. Determining how financial effects on an entity's prospects reach the materiality threshold is very challenging, because financial effects can be indirect, location-specific, uncertain, or not visible in near-term financial metrics Should distinguish between 'immaterial' and 'unable to demonstrate materiality'. Expecting a trend towards 'less is more', where disclosures are concise and decision useful. Would support clearer guidance from the ISSB on materiality judgements. |
| Identifying decision-useful information | Emphasised quality over quantity and the need to translate voluntary, multi-stakeholder disclosure frameworks into information that is decision-useful for primary users. Preparers will often consider the purpose and benefit of each disclosed data point, including the preparation effort and how the information will be used. Primary users do not necessarily need detailed quantitative information but do need an explanation of how nature-related impacts and dependencies translate into financial risks and opportunities. Primary users are mostly interested in the actions taken by entities in response to risks and opportunities. Generally, primary users are not yet mature enough in their understanding of what nature-related information is decision-useful. A key test used in investor discussions is whether nature-related information has materially changed an investment decision, rather than whether the topic was simply considered important. It is not clear whether nature-related information has materially changed an investment or lending decision, or whether the topic was simply considered important. |
| Assessing nature-related risks and opportunities | A singular, aggregated view of nature-related risks is meaningless because nature encompasses many different risks that are unlikely to materialise simultaneously. Disclosure by theme (e.g. water, land-use) could be more useful than trying to understand nature as a whole. Time horizons are challenging for nature, especially chronic issues that often manifest over a prolonged period. Long-term quantified risks can be misleading, as entities will likely adapt over time (e.g. modifying products, changing supply chains). The most useful information would demonstrate that the entity has understood the risk and its effects on the entity. Clear definitions are important for risk management, but nature-related transition and physical risks can be blurred. It might be prudent to not try to delineate the two concepts too much at this stage because the separation is not straightforward. |
| Understanding effects on entities' prospects | It is unclear if reporting entities are expected to disclose the financial cost of mitigating the risks or the potential financial impact of the risk itself. The assessment of financial effects is not the same as quantification. For some risks, the net financial effect is unknown and for others the direction and scale of the risk might be understood, but it is too difficult to translate into financial figures. The focus should not be on quantifying risks, but on understanding how entities prioritise and act on nature-related risks and opportunities. Moving from dependencies and impacts to risks, opportunities and financial prospects requires substantial judgement, plausible pathways, assumptions about manifestation, duration, sector responses and mitigating actions. Financial effects assessments are highly sensitive to these assumptions and time horizons. Entities might not quantify nature-related risks because any estimate could vary by an order of magnitude due to the uncertainty. There is a risk that a financial figure is seen as precise when actually there is a huge amount of estimation. Precision is difficult when uncertainty is high. |
| ---------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Topic for discussion | Overview of themes and challenges associated with nature-related disclosures |
153 Microsoft Copilot was used as a note taker to summarise discussions by theme. All summaries were reviewed and verified by the TAC Secretariat to ensure their accuracy and consistency with the discussions held.
154 The topics discussed at each session are set out below. These topics were informed by the issues identified and agreed by the TAC at its April 2026 meeting (Paper 2026-TAC-011), as well as the preliminary findings from the literature review and FTSE 100 content analysis undertaken as part of the research project.
| Topic | Findings |
|---|---|
| Financial valuation modelling | Strong views from both primary users and preparers regarding the use of financial valuation modelling for nature-related risks and opportunities. Detailed financialised or actuarial-style valuation might not be decision-useful or readily scalable across organisations. On the other hand, despite limitations, financial valuation modelling could be relevant in some contexts and could support comparisons of trade-offs and priorities. Financial effects requirements do not necessarily need to include financial valuation, but primary users need to understand the pathways from nature-related impacts and dependencies to financial risks and opportunities. |
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| Topic for discussion | Overview of themes and challenges associated with nature-related disclosures |
153 Microsoft Copilot was used as a note taker to summarise discussions by theme. All summaries were reviewed and verified by the TAC Secretariat to ensure their accuracy and consistency with the discussions held.
154 The topics discussed at each session are set out below. These topics were informed by the issues identified and agreed by the TAC at its April 2026 meeting (Paper 2026-TAC-011), as well as the preliminary findings from the literature review and FTSE 100 content analysis undertaken as part of the research project.
| Topic | Findings | 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| Topic | Findings |
|---|---|
| 1. The Committee has had regard to the FRC’s mission to promote corporate governance and corporate reporting that contributes to the UK’s long-term success. It believes that high quality nature-related disclosure will contribute to the UK’s success through improving transparency and supporting effective capital allocation. |
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The Committee’s advice is for consideration by the UK government, to support its decision making on the establishment of a UK sustainability reporting framework, and by the FRC. In the short-term, the Committee considers this advice to be an input into the FRC’s decision on whether to develop a Practice Statement on nature-related reporting.
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The Committee has observed significant global momentum towards nature-related reporting. In 2022, the Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD) released its first disclosure framework for market consultation. The TNFD Recommendation (final framework) was published in September 2023, following an iterative development and extensive market consultation process that involved over 1,100 organisations globally. The TNFD is aligned with the ISSB’s General Requirements for Disclosure of Sustainability-related Financial Information (IFRS S1), and Climate-related Disclosures (IFRS S2), and is consistent with the TNFD’s recognition that climate change is the biggest driver of nature loss, but that nature should be considered a standalone reporting topic.
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The UK government, through its Green Finance Strategy, has made a commitment to exploring the appropriateness of endorsing the TNFD Recommendations. The government has also previously indicated that the ISSB’s IFRS S1 and S2 will form the baseline for a future UK sustainability reporting framework. The Committee considers the TNFD framework to be the leading global standard for nature-related reporting, and notes its alignment with the ISSB’s work. The Committee therefore considers that the TNFD framework should form the basis for UK nature-related reporting.
1.1 Scope and methodology
5. The Committee formed a Nature-related Sub-group in October 2023 to develop advice on nature-related disclosure, with a view to supporting the FRC in its preparation of advice to government. This advice was requested by the FRC to ensure that the FRC’s advice to government on the future UK sustainability reporting framework is informed by deep expertise and broad market perspectives.
6. The Committee’s advice considers the TNFD framework in the context of the UK environment, and the broader UK sustainability reporting framework. The Committee has focused on identifying areas where further guidance and support might be helpful to UK companies that would be required to report against a UK nature-related reporting standard.
7. In developing this advice, the Committee has:
- Undertaken a literature review of existing academic and market practice research on nature-related reporting.
- Conducted a content analysis of FTSE 100 companies’ 2022 annual reports to assess current practice regarding nature-related disclosures.
- Held three stakeholder roundtables with 16 experts on nature-related disclosures, representing preparers, primary users, academics, data providers, and non-governmental organisations. The roundtables were semi-structured discussions that focused on the opportunities and challenges of applying the TNFD framework.
- Considered the TNFD Recommendation and supplementary guidance, including the TNFD sectoral guidance.
8. This advice sets out the Committee’s key conclusions and recommendations on nature-related reporting. The advice is structured into three main sections:
- Key findings from the Committee’s research.
- Areas for further consideration by the FRC, as part of any Practice Statement on nature-related reporting.
- Areas for further consideration by the UK government, to support its decision making on the UK sustainability reporting framework.
9. The advice is accompanied by two appendices:
- Appendix 1 sets out the Committee’s preliminary findings from the FTSE 100 content analysis.
- Appendix 2 sets out the Committee’s preliminary findings from the literature review.
- Appendix 3 sets out a summary of the stakeholder roundtables, including a table of findings by topic.
10. The Committee has considered the impact of its advice on proportionality for businesses. It has considered the need for flexibility to ensure that preparers can provide decision-useful information that is proportionate to their circumstances and appropriate for primary users.
2. Key conclusions and recommendations
11. The Committee provides the following key conclusions and recommendations for consideration by the UK government and the FRC.
12. These conclusions and recommendations are based on the Committee’s research, including extensive market consultation. The Committee believes that they will support the development of high-quality nature-related disclosure in the UK, and contribute to the FRC’s mission to promote corporate governance and corporate reporting that contributes to the UK’s long-term success.
2.1 Recommendation 1: Endorsement of TNFD Recommendations
13. The UK government should endorse the TNFD Recommendations as the basis for a future UK nature-related reporting standard.
14. The Committee’s research (literature review, content analysis, and stakeholder roundtables) highlighted the global momentum towards nature-related reporting and the broad market support for the TNFD framework. The TNFD framework is the leading global standard for nature-related reporting, and its alignment with the ISSB’s IFRS S1 and S2 means that it is well-placed to form the basis for a future UK nature-related reporting standard.
15. Early endorsement of the TNFD Recommendations would provide clarity and certainty to UK companies that will be required to report against a UK nature-related reporting standard. It would also demonstrate the UK’s commitment to addressing nature-related risks and opportunities, and support the UK’s position as a leader in sustainable finance.
2.2 Recommendation 2: FRC Practice Statement on nature-related reporting
16. The FRC should develop a Practice Statement on nature-related reporting, to support UK companies in preparing high-quality nature-related disclosures.
17. The Committee’s research highlighted that nature-related reporting is nascent, and that market practice is still developing. There is a need for further guidance and support to UK companies, particularly in the short-term, to help them understand and apply the TNFD framework.
18. A Practice Statement would provide a pragmatic approach to supporting